Financial Markets Overview

Here is summary of all about financial markets from various products to participants and much more to give some insight into financial markets and the structure.

Financial Markets
• A marketplace where financial products can be bought and sold
• Financial Products
– Securities
• Stocks, bonds
– Commodities
– Derivatives
• Equity derivatives, credit derivatives etc
– Currencies
– Insurance etc.

Market Types by Product
• Capital Markets / Securities Markets
– Raise capital
– Trade Securities
• Commodities Markets
– Trade commodities (metals, grains etc)
• Derivatives Markets
– Trade Derivatives
• Money Markets
– Trade short-term Debt instruments
• Foreign Exchange Markets /FOREX
– Trade Currencies
• Insurance Markets
– Trade Insurance products

Market Players
• Borrowers
• Lenders / Investors
• Brokerage/Intermediary Firms
• Banks
• Exchanges

Borrowers
• Individuals
– Personal loans
– Mortgages etc
• Corporations – private and public
– Capital for business expansion
– Cash flows etc
• Governments – federal, municipalities,
foreign
– Bonds

Lenders or Investors
• Individuals
– Savings accounts, Pension Accounts
– Securities, mutual funds, hedge funds
– Insurance etc
• Large Corporations
– Stock buy back
– Money Market
– Hedging etc
• Professional Institutions, Hedge Funds
– Asset Management etc

Banks
• Mostly provide loans etc
• Play key role in Money Markets
• Serve Individuals and Corporations
• Individuals
– Savings Accounts
– Pension Accounts
– Investment Account
• Corporations
– Money Lending, etc

Exchanges
• Organizations that facilitate trading
• Provide Trading Floor that allows face-to-face trading
• Also provide Electronic Crossing Engines

Marketplace
• Trading Venues
• Exchange Markets
– Physical facilities that facilitate trading
– Face to face trading
– Only members can trade
– Only listed products trade
– NYSE, ASE, NYFE, NYMEX etc
• OTC (Over-the-counter) Markets
– No physical locations, mostly electronic
– Facilitate direct trade between two parties
– Firms Trade as Market Makers
– Market Makers, Broker-Dealers are players

Exchange Markets
• Trade Listed Products only
– Company stock listed with certain exchange
• Only registered members are allowed to trade
• Specialist – facilitates the trade for specific product
• Floor Brokers – represent firms and their clients
• Traders – trade their own accounts
• Commission Brokers – trade for commission

Popular Exchanges
• New York Stock Exchange (NYSE)
• American Stock Exchange
• Boston Stock Exchange
• Chicago Board Options Exchange
• Chicago Stock Exchange
• Philadelphia Stock Exchange etc.

OTC Markets
• Mostly Electronic Markets
• Virtual Exchanges
• OTC Bulletin Board – US quotation service that lists quotes from Market Makers
• Regulated by appropriate agencies
• Products
– Stocks, Bonds, Municipal Securities, US Gov Securities, etc
• Participants
– Market Makers
– Brokers

Market Makers / Broker-Dealer
• Financial Institution or Individual willing to BUY and SELL instrument at the same time
• Provide continuous quotes for instruments
• Profit or lose money from the bid/offer SPREAD (difference b/w buy and sell price)
• Trade for their own accounts
• Risk their own money
• Same security can be traded by multiple Market makers at different prices

Capital Markets
• Raise Long-term capital
– To expand business
– For additional Cash flow
– Reduce holdings
– Private use
• Long-term debt obligation products
– More than one year debt
• Products
– Securities
• Regulated by SEC and related SROs under the guidance of SEC
– FINRA, MSRB
• Also knows as Securities Market

Security
• Kind of interest or note that has some financial value
• Tradable/Transferable
• Types of products
– Equity Securities – Stocks
– Debt Securities – Bonds
• Stock
– Value may increase or decrease, may return dividend
– Trade in Stock Market
• Debt/Bond
– Produce fixed interest income
– Trade in Bond Market

Stock Market
• Stock (also referred as Share)
– Equity in Corporation
• Types of Stock
– Common Stock
– Preferred Stock etc
• Stock Derivatives
– Contract with or without obligation
• Types of Equity Derivatives
– Futures
– Options

Common Stock
• Also referred to as
– Just Stock
– Share
– Common Share
– Ordinary Share
• Least preferred stock among others
• Holders have the right to vote in certain corporate decision making
• When corporation liquidated may or may not get any money
• Riskier than other securities

Preferred Stock
• Has priority over Common Stock
• Special voting right on some key decisions
– Acquisition and Mergers
– Issuing new Equity
• May get some money when corporation liquidated
• Less riskier than Common Stock

Hybrid Securities
• Products defined with selected characteristics from both Debt and Equity securities
• Some examples
• Preferred Stock
– Have right to collect interest/capital prior to common stock holders when corporation is liquidated
• Convertibles
– Bond/Preferred Stock that can be converted into a common stock after certain period

Securities Markets
• Primary Market
– Trades Initial Offerings
– Allows to raise capital for corporations
– NYSE, NASDAQ etc
– Syndicate – work on release of IPOs (usually Brokerage Firms)
• Secondary Market
– Trades already owned securities
– Exchanges, OTC

Bond Markets
Debt Products
• Debt Products are two types
– Short-term debt – Money Markets
– Long-term debt – Bond Markets
• Debt – investor or lender loans the money to borrower for a certain period of time. In return he expects the fixed amount of interest amount in periodic intervals and principle amount at the end.
• Key terms
– Principal amount – Amount loaned
– Coupon rate – interest rate
– Maturity date – Date on which principal amount is
due

• Periodic interest amount
– Coupon rate * principal amount
• Since these products return fixed amount they are referred to as FIXED INCOME products
• Less riskier than Stock
• In case of liquidation, debt holder may get full or partial principal amount before stock holders

Money Markets
• Short-term debt obligations
• Less than a YEAR maturity
• Very low risk
• Instruments are
– US Treasury Bills (T-Bills)
– US Gov Agency Notes (Notes)
– Municipal Notes
– Bank Certificate of Deposit (CDs)
• Long-term debt obligations
• More than a year maturity (may go up to 30 to 50yrs)
• Fixed flow of returns
• Instruments
– US Treasury Bonds
– Municipal Bonds
– Corporate Bonds

FX Markets
• No Physical Exchanges
• Traded mostly using Telephonic and Electronic Communication (OTC – Over-the-counter)
• Mainly Traded between Financial Institutions
• 24-hour Market
• Quoted on Dealing System (FX Trading Systems)
– Reuters and Bloomberg are popular
• World’s average DAILY FX Trading volume is more than $1800 billions
• Also referred to as Currency Markets
• London, New York and Tokyo are popular FX Markets
• London is the largest in the World

FX Market Players
• Large Banks
• Central Banks (from various countries)
• Investment Management Firms
• Retail FX Brokers (FOREX Brokers)
• Hedge Funds
• Large Corporations
• Governments
• Individuals can trade FX through any FX Brokers

Most Traded Currencies
• USD
• EUR
• JPY
• GBP
• CHF (Swiss Frank)
• AUD

FX Trade Types
• Spot Trades
– Immediate needs
– Usually delivered in 2 business days (settlement time)
• Forwards Trades (Derivative)
– Future date settlement (delivered in future on some date)

Derivatives Market
• Derivative
– Instrument whose value derived from the underlying asset
• Example - Equity Option
– Option is not a security by itself
– It is right (agreement/contract) to sell or buy an underlying security
– Only premium is paid to buy an option NOT the price of the underlying equity
• Traded on Exchanges as well as OTC Markets

• Main Categories are
– Options
• Eg: equity options, bond options
– Futures
• Eg: index futures, commodity futures
– Forwards
• Eg: FX forwards
– Swaps
• Eg: interest rate swaps, currency swaps

Option
• Right to buy or sell an underlying instrument
• Just premium is paid to buy the option not the value of the underlying asset
• It is just a RIGHT not an OBLIGATION
– Holder may not execute his right at all
• Popular Options
– Stock option
– Bond option
– Commodity option
– Interest Rate option
– FX option etc.

Future
• Standard contract to buy or sell an underlying instrument on some future date
• Traded on Futures Exchanges
• Contract is an obligation, holder must exercise
• On delivery date, holder may actually deliver the instrument or pay the price difference
• Popular Futures Contracts
– Commodity
– FX etc

Forward
• Similar to Futures Contract but not Standard
• Traded between two private parties (usually in OTC Markets)
• On delivery date, holder may actually deliver the instrument or pay the price difference
• Riskier than Futures

SWAP
• Is an agreement between two parties to swap one set of CASH FLOW with another set
• For example, holder of Fixed interest rate loan may exchange his cash flow (return stream) with a party who holds Variable rate loan cash flow
• Traded in OTC Derivatives Markets
• Various SWAPs
– Interest Rate Swap
– Currency Swap etc

Why Derivatives?
• Hedging / Insurance
– Transfer the RISK
– Ex: Farmer selling a crop before its harvest to protect from any future fluctuations in prices
• Arbitrage
– Buying an instrument in one market and selling in another and profiting from the difference
• Speculation
– Speculating the price variation in instrument and buying futures or options of that instrument

Brokerage Firms
• Intermediary institution in financial markets
• Provide various different services
• Primary objective is to channel the funds between lenders and borrowers
• Firms specialize intermediary (brokerage) services in various different areas
– Banking
– Capital Markets
– Wealth Management
– Insurance etc.
• Large firms serve in multiple areas
• Brokerage services may also be provided by
– Banks
– Insurance Companies
– Mutual Funds
– Credit Unions etc
• Individuals can also be Brokers, but may have to obtain appropriate licenses
– Financial Advisor
– Insurance Agent etc.

Services
• Investment Banking
• Wealth Management
• Asset/Investment Management
• Banking
• Insurance
• Trading etc

Investment Banking
• Help private and public corporations to raise funds
– Capital Markets
– Equity and Debt
• Advise in mergers and acquisitions (M&A)
– Strategic Partners
• Corporate Finance
– Loans to corporation

Wealth Management
• Beyond basic Financial Planning
• Serving high net worth clients
– Asset Management
– Investment Advisory
– Portfolio management (distribution of investment products)
– Insurance
– Banking Services

• Simpler versions of Wealth Management are
– Portfolio Management
– Private Banking
– Asset Management /Investment Management

Prime Brokerage
• Services to Hedge Funds
• Collective Services
– Custodial Services (clearing, custody etc)
– Financing
– Securities Lending
– Technology Services (Trading/portfolio apps)
– Operational Services (facilities etc)
• Full Service to startup hedge funds
• Other Services
– Risk analytics
– Advisory Services etc

Capital Markets
• Primary Markets
– Work as Syndicate in releasing IPOs
• Secondary Markets
– Provide Trading Services
– Usually hold memberships on most of the exchanges
– Trade instruments for commission
– Trade instruments for their own accounts to profit from market movements

Insurance Services
• Insurance helps individual and corporations in managing the risk
• Some brokerage firms provide insurance for corporations

Research
• Some firms provide research services as well
• Evaluation of Financial Information of Corporations
• Securities Price Evaluations
• Market research and predictions
• Rating Stock and Bonds etc

Large Brokerage Firms
• Goldman Sachs
• Citi
• JPMorganChase
• Merrill Lynch
• Lehman Brothers
• Bear Sterns
• Morgan Stanley
• UBS
• Bank of America
• Barclays Capital
• ABN AMRO
• Deutche Bank
• CSFB and many more….

Regulatory Agencies
SEC
• US Securities and Exchange Commission
• Founded in 1934
• Objective is to protect the public investment
• Regulates Stock Market and Corporate Reporting
• Independent and US Government Agency
• Has power to license and regulate Stock Exchanges
• Agency to enforce Federal Securities Laws
• Has authority to impose fines and take legal actions against the non-complying corporations
• All Public companies must submit quarterly and annual reports to SEC
• Works with SROs and other federal state agencies in implementing and enforcing regulations
• Run by five commissioners appointed by US President

FINRA
• FINRA - Financial Industry Regulatory Authority
• The largest non-governmental regulatory agency
• Regulates all securities firms doing business in the United States
• FINRA oversees nearly 5,000 brokerage firms
• Has approximately 665,000 registered securities representatives
• Founded in 2007 consolidating NASD and some functions of NYSE
• Follows and enforces SEC regulations
• SRO – Self Regulatory Organization
– Holds an authority to introduce its own regulations
– Adds its own regulations or clarifies SEC regulations
– Usually done to complete the missing items in SEC regulations
• Regulates the Trading and Brokerage practices
– Equities
– Bonds
– Securities Futures
– Options
• Every Firm dealing in securities must be a member of some SRO or Regulatory Agency
• Member Types are
– Brokerage Firms
– Securities Representatives / Independent Brokers

• Primary Functions
– Define Regulatory Rules
– Impose Rules
– Audit and monitor member firms and individuals involved in markets
• Can even impose fines or take legal action against non-complying corporations
• Primarily funded by
– Member firms
– Membership fees
– Fines

NYSE
• New York Stock Exchange
• Owned by NYSE Euronext
• NYSE initially started in 1792, operated as not-for profit organization until 2006
• Went public in 2006 as NYSE Group, Inc. after purchase of ARCA ECN
• Turned into NYSE Euronext in 2006 after merger with Euronext
• Euronext – European Stock Exchange based in Paris
• Nation’s largest Stock Exchange
• Also known as BIG BOARD
• Lists/trades more than 2000 companies stock
• NYSE has capitalization of $23+ trillion
– Capitalization: stock worth
• NYSE Composite Index
– Benchmark index that reflects the performance of all the stocks traded on NYSE Exchange
• NYSE Exchange is located on Wall Street in New York City
• Provides Physical Floor for Trading
• Uses popular Continuous Open Outcry Auction Format
• Only Exchange Members are licensed to trade on the Floor
• Individuals known as Specialists act as AUCTIONEERs (middleman)
• Specialist is not an employee of NYSE
• Each listed stock trades at one specialist
• Buyers and Sellers of the stock are gathered at Specialist

Indices
• Index
– Single statistical number that is calculated for a group of components
• Used to measure the overall performance of the components involved
• Example - Stock Market Index
– DJIA – Dow Jones Industrial Average
– Single number that reflects the overall performance of Industrial Stocks
• Indices are available for all different markets and products

Indices – Benchmark Indices
• Benchmark indices are used to measure performance of major markets
• DJIA – Dow Jones Industrial Average
– Performance of major Industrial stock listed on NYSE
– Include companies like GE, IBM, MSFT etc
• S&P 500
– Performance of 500 Large-Cap stocks
• FTSE 100 (Futsie 100)
– 100 Large companies listed on LSE
• Nikkei 225
– 225 Large corporations listed on TSE
• Hang Seng
– Major companies listed on Hong Kong Stock Exchange

Indices - Specialized
• iShares MSCI EAFE
– Index of selected foreign stock
• Morgan Stanley Biotech
– Index of selected biotech companies
• Interest Rate Indices
• Consumer Price Index (CPI)
• Many more…